Publications [#381982] of David C. Rubin

Journal Articles

1. Rubin, DC; Bell, CF (2024). Tonic Immobility Is Engaged in Most Highly Stressful and Traumatic Events: Insights Into the Relationship of Freezing, Shame, and Sexual Assault. Traumatology. [doi]
   (last updated on 2025/06/16)

   Abstract:
   Tonic immobility (TI) and shame are phylogenetically conserved passive defense mechanisms signaling submission. TI causes a loss of intentional motor control including speech. TI is engaged when escape and resistance fail in life-threatening situations, leading TI to be common in highly stressful and traumatic events. Shame is engaged when an individual’s or society’s expectations are violated. Because both engage without conscious awareness, they leave victims blaming themselves for their inaction and emotions. However, unlike shame, TI is absent from most theories of trauma. Amazon Mechanical Turk workers (N = 371, Mage = 40, 137 male), screened to have TI, provided brief narrative descriptions of the event that caused their greatest TI, rated properties of the event, completed individual differences measures, and attributed postevent symptoms to the event itself, to TI from the event, to shame, and to shame from the TI. The most frequently observed categories of events were sexual assaults, other assaults, motor vehicle accidents, medical and deaths, and gun violence. Categories varied widely in their rated properties and the characteristics of their narratives, with sexual assaults often being an outlier. Correlations among the measures, differences in their means, and narrative analyses were combined to demonstrate the importance of TI and shame for trauma. We introduce a theoretical framework for TI, shame, and their interaction based on evolution, biology, behavior, and clinical symptoms that clarifies how both increase symptoms and why both are so prevalent in sexual assaults.